Eternal Ulysses

The city of Epidamnus, on the coast of modern-day Albania, was locked in a bitter war against their barbarian neighbors. Founded as colony by the city of Corcyra around 627 BC, Epidamnus had steadily grown into a prosperous center of local trade, though if you were to ask your average Hellene they would have difficulty describing where it exactly it was.  The war with the neighboring Taulantians, an Illyrian people, was putting a heavy economic and social strain on the city, until finally the people had had enough and exiled the ruling aristocrats in 435 B.C. The exiled oligarchs then joined with the Taulantians in ravaging the countryside and raiding their city’s ships along the Illyrian coast.

Against the wall and on the edge of the Greek world, the desperate Epidamnians dispatched envoys to their mother city Corcyra. Corcyra, the modern Greek island of Corfu, was the dominant naval power on the Ionian Sea. With a fleet of 120 ships, they were second only to Athens at sea.

The Epidamnian envoys met the rulers of Corcyra in the Temple of Hera, going to them on their knees in the formal act of supplication, begging for aid in negotiating a peace with the exiles and barbarians. Unfortunately for the people of Epidamnus, Corcyra had maintained a general policy of diplomatic isolation and avoiding alliances and refused to send any aid. The Epidamnians, more despondent than before, sent a second mission to the central religious authority in the Greek world: the Oracle at Delphi. The priestess of Apollo advised them to seek the aid of their other founding city, Corinth.

Corinth was one of the wealthiest cities in Hellas, perhaps surpassed only by Athens. Situated at the top of the Peloponnesus, all overland trade going from north or south had to pass through her territory, and with the rise of Greece’s naval tradition her wealth had only continued to grow. One of the great cities of Hellas, she was a member of the Peloponnesian league, and a first-rate power. Corcyra was only one of Corinth’s many colonies, and the initial batch of Epidamnian colonists had included a number of native Corinthians.

The two cities, Corcyra and Corinth, had not maintained a friendly relationship. Corcyra’s trade and influence had grown formidable, as it lay directly on the trade route from Greece to the western half of the Mediterranean. Greeks in Italy, Sicily, and France had to sail past Corcyra, and her formidable navy, to trade with the rest of the Greek world.  Corinth and Corcyra had already fought a series of wars for dominance over colonies in the region, and here was a gift-wrapped opportunity for Corinth to expand their influence. Epidamnus’ ties to Corinth by blood were certainly a factor in their decision to help, but Corinth’s eagerness to do so came from their contempt for Corcyra and the opportunity to make their rival lose face.

Corinth sent a small contingent of hoplites and settlers from Corinth, Leucas, and Ambracia. The band set off to Epidamnus overland by way of Apollonia to avoid the Corcyraean navy. As the settlers and soldiers marched across the rugged Greek mountains, or perhaps while the Epidamnian envoys were at Corinth, the exiled aristocrats had sent their own mission to Corcyra. Their aristocratic families were intertwined, and upon receiving news that Corinthian troops and settlers had reached Epidamnus Corcyra dispatched twenty-five ships in a blind rage. More ships were promptly sent to follow.

When the ships arrived the Corcyraeans demanded that the Corinthians leave, and that the people of Epidamnus reinstall the exiled oligarchs. The people of Epidamnus had exiled these aristocrats for a reason, the same aristocrats who had then traitorously joined with the barbarians in attacking their homes and fields. The People had gone to the rulers of Corcyra begging on their knees and had been bluntly refused. Thucydides says that the Epidamnians turned a deaf ear to the insolent Corcyraeans, but it is far more likely they told them where to go. The city was located on a peninsula with three backs to the sea. The exiled aristocrats and Taulantians began to siege city on land while forty ships, one third of Corcyra’s navy, set up a blockade.

Messengers reached Corinth with the news, and the city went to work raising a relief force. They began selling the ancient equivalent of war-bonds, citizenship-spots in a new colony near Epidamnus. Individuals who wanted to reserve their spot could make a contribution of 50 drachmae, or they could help fight to take the city back.

To reach the city in time this relief army would have to go by sea. Corinth dispatched messengers to their allies and colonies and began concentrating their forces.  Megara sent 8 triremes, Pale contributed 4, Epidaurus 5, Hermione 1, Troezen 2. Leucas and Ambracia, who had also sent settlers contributed 10 and 8 respectively. Thebes and Phliasia contributed funds, while Elea donated unmanned hulls. Corinth herself raised 30 triremes and raised 3,000 hoplites. 75 ships would have to make it past, or through, Corcyra’s home fleet of 80 ships if they were going to relieve Epidamnus in time. What had started as a class struggle localized to Epidamnus was now escalating dramatically, and the great powers were taking notice.

A delegation from Corcyra arrived in Corinth, and with them an envoy from Sparta. They maintained that Epidamnus was a Cocyraean colony and this was not Corinth’s business. If Corinth wanted to make a claim, Corcyra was open to arbitration, or they could give the decision to the Oracle at Delphi. If Corinth wanted war, Corcyra was more than willing to fight, and they would go looking for allies to counter Corinth’s treasury.

The historian Donald Kagan claims that Corcyra was sincere in their offer of arbitration, though the offer certainly came with some Spartan prodding. The deliberations were heated. Corinthian troops were currently under siege within Epidamnus; arbitration would only be possible if Corcyra lifted the siege. Corcyra countered that if Corinth’s troops left the city, Corcyra would withdraw as well, or both sides could remain in place under an armistice. Corcyra was willing to trade their stronger position, but only for a win. Any arbiter would be within the Peloponnesian league, and with Spartan influence the decision would likely be in favor of Corcyra. All Corcyra needed was to run out the clock. Corinth knew this.

They rejected the Corcyraeans’ offer and dispatched heralds formally declaring war. The oars struck water, and the combined Corinthian fleet of 75 triremes and 2,000 hoplites set sail. The Corinthians took the Corcyraean fleet by surprise at Actium, near the mouth of the gulf of Ambracia. The Corcyraeans were still on shore.

Upon spotting the enemy fleet they sent out a herald in a small boat. The herald warned the Corinthians to turn back. He was able to buy enough time for the Corcyraeans to prepare and board their ships. Corinth refused the warning, and the two fleets sailed into battle. It was a decisive victory for the Corcyraeans. 15 Corinthian ships now belonged to the sea, and the remaining Corinthian fleet was fleeing home.  The same day, unaware of the battle to the south, Epidamnus capitulated to the Corcyraeans and exiled oligarchs. The Corinthian settlers and troops were taken prisoner; the rest of the city was sold into slavery.

Corcyra had captured a large number of prisoners during the battle. The Corinthians they kept in chains. The rest, the Leucadians, Megarans, Ambracians, and other allies, they slaughtered, denying them even the slim hope that came with slavery. The Corcyraeans erected a victory trophy on Cape Leukimme, the southern tip of their island. The Corcyraean fleet then sailed south, to Leucas, and ravaged their territory, burning and pillaging as they went. They then sailed to Cyllene, the port of the Eleans who had donated ships to the Corinthian cause, and burnt it to the ground. The Corcyraean fleet spent the rest of the summer patrolling the seas unopposed, hunting for trade ships from Corinth and her allies.

The allies who had joined Corinth were now suffering for it. Something had to be done, but Corinth’s wounded navy was in no position to confront the united Corcyraean fleet of 120 triremes. At the end of the summer, Corinth’s ships sailed out once again. They may not have been capable of defeating the Corcyraean fleet, but they could keep it from raiding their allies. The Corinthians encamped at Actium and Chimerium, preventing any more strikes south. The Corcyraeans set up an opposing camp at Cape Leukimme. The two navies sat there, roughly 20 miles apart from one another, and waited. Summer turned to fall, and fall turned to winter – with both navies still in the field.

Time was no longer on Corcyra’s side. Corinth was not just rich. They were “wealthy.” After their defeat at Actium the Corinthians set to work constructing a fleet that could overcome the Corcyraeans. The slaughter of the allied prisoners had to be answered. Ships alone would not be enough, they needed rowers. Each trireme required 170 rowers, and Corinth offered bounties across Hellas to fill the ranks of oars.

Corcyra was not a member of either league. They would need to make good on their threat of finding allies if they had any hope of defeating Corinth. Corinth, however, was part of a league, and they were recruiting more troops from their colonies and allies. If Corcyra had any chance of surviving the coming second assault, they would need the aid of the only power in Greece with a navy greater than theirs: Athens.